Rome Slides

Figure 10-1 Model of the city of Rome during the early fourth century CE. Rome, Museodella Civiltà Romana. 1) Temple of Fortuna Virilis, 2) Circus Maximus. 3) Palatine Hill,4) Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, 5) Pantheon, 6) Column of Trajan, 7) Forum ofTrajan, 8) Market of Trajan, 9) Forum of Julius Ceasar, 10) Forum of Augustus, 11)Forum Romanum, 12) Basilica Nova, 13) Arch of Titus, 14) Temple of Venus and Roma,15) Arch of Constantine, 16) Colossus of Nero, 17) Colosseum.

Art Historymust-sees

in Rome

1)The Roman Republic: 4th – 1st C BCE (2nd C BCE)

•Caesar 49-44

2)Imperial Rome: 1st C BCE – 4th CE (2nd C CE)

•Augustus 27-14

•Nero 54-68

•Vespasian 69-79

•Titus 79-81

•Trajan 98-117

•Hadrian 117-138

•Marcus Aurelius 161-180

•Caracalla 211-217

•Diocletian 284-305

•Constantine the Great 312-337

Key Dates

Contextual Issues to Consider in Rome

•Appropriation: The Roman loved everything Greek and copiedtheir aesthetic extensively

•Pragmatism: The standards of art were determined by the “greatestgood” and popular opinion

•Propaganda: Both Republican and Imperial Roman art emphasizespower and authority

•Utilitarianism: engineering, road building, and public works arebuilt to manage the government and the people

•Architectural Innovation: new technologies in engineering includingthe arch, vault, dome and concrete

Four Contributions to Architecture by the Romans

•Building for use –

•addressing the practical problems of everyday city life

•A shift from religious building to civil engineering projects

•Developing the arch and vault as a structural principle

•Increased size and scale made possible

•Emphasis on verticality

•Made possible by concrete

•New massive buildings begin to have multiple uses

•Greater variety and complexity of forms

•Elaborate interior design

•Light and space treated as tangible realities

Figure 10-2 Temple of “FortunaVirilis” (Temple of Portunus),Rome, Italy, ca. 75 BCE.

•Combines Greek andEtruscan elements to make adistinctively Roman style

•Etruscan influence: it sitsatop a high podium, hasstairs only in the front and asingle, deep porch

•Greek influence: it hasfreestanding Ionic columnsthat support an Ionic friezeand pediment, and a singlecella

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-2 Temple of “FortunaVirilis” (Temple of Portunus),Rome, Italy, ca. 75 BCE.

•Roman Features:

•the addition of a series of engagedhalf columns on the side and theback of the cella

•the cella walls are made ofconcrete

•Function: not only used to housea cult statue, but also used todisplay trophies and “spoils ofwar” (usually statues and weapons)

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-2 Temple of “Fortuna Virilis”(Temple of Portunus), Rome, Italy, ca. 75BCE.

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

•Peripteral: a single rowof columns on all foursides of a building orarea

•Pseudo-peripteral: someof the columns areengaged (usually sidesand back)

•Peristyle: synonym ofperipteral

•With the discovery of concrete, the Romans revolutionizedarchitecture

•It was made from lime mortar, volcanic sand, volcanic ash(pozzolana), water and small stones

•It was poured into wooden molds and dried as hard as stone

•Unlike marble, it was cheap as it did not need to be quarried,cut or transported

The Concrete Revolution

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

The Advantages of Concrete:

•Less expensive than stone

•Easier to build with than stone (mix it on-site)

•Often stronger than stone (more tensile)

•Larger structures can be built (especially in height)

•Greater variety and complexity of forms and spaces

The Concrete Revolution

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

•Concrete made it possible for architects to cover large spaceswith barrel vaults, groin vaults and domes

•A row of round arches produces a barrel or tunnel vault

The Concrete Revolution

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

•Concrete made it possible for architects to cover large spaceswith barrel vaults, groin vaults and domes

•A groin vault or cross vault is formed by the intersection atright angles of two barrel vaults of equal size

The Concrete Revolution

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

•A dome is a hemispheric vault that usually rests on acylindrical wall called a drum

•Before the Romans, the corbelled Treasury of Atreus atMycenae was the largest domed space in the ancient world

The Concrete Revolution

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-7 Head of aRoman patrician, fromOtricoli, Italy, ca. 75–50BCE. Marble, approx. 1’ 2”high. Museo Torlonia,Rome.

Early Roman Portrait-Busts

Would you rather have a portraitof yourself as you really look, oras you would like to look?

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-7 Headof a Romanpatrician, fromOtricoli, Italy, ca.75–50 BCE.Marble, approx. 1’2” high. MuseoTorlonia, Rome.

•The Romans knew about the idealized portraitsof the Greeks, but during the time of TheRepublic, Romans preferred veristic orsuperrealistic portraits

•Roman sculptors often used death masks tocreate portraits of the head, neck and shoulderscalled busts

•As confident, experienced rulers of Rome in itsrising power, they valued gravitas, or weightiness

•Serious minded Romans honored strength overbeauty, power more than grace, and steadinessmore than quickness of mind

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-5 Funerary relief with portraits of the Gessii, from Rome(?), Italy, ca. 30 BCE.Marble, approx. 2’ 1 1/2” high. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

•Roman aristocrats were proud of their family lineage and theportrait-busts provided a visual representation of a family’sgenealogy…

Figure 10-6 Relief with funerary procession, from Amiternum, Italy, second half of firstcentury BCE. Limestone, approx. 2’ 2” high. Museo Nazionale d’Abruzzo, L’Aquila.

•Romans aristocrats kept their busts in wooden cupboards andproudly paraded them at the funerals of prominent family membersand relatives

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

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Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-10 Aerial view of the forum (1), with Temple of Jupiter(Capitolium, 2) and Basilica (3), Pompeii, Italy, second century BCE andlater.

Pompeii: DomesticArchitecture

•1900 years ago, Pompeiiwas a thriving city of 10-20 thousand people

•On August 24, 79 CE,Mount Vesuvius erupted,burying Pompeii under alayer of volcanic ash 20feet thick

•It remained buried untilthe mid-18th C

Figure 10-11 Aerial view of the amphitheater, Pompeii, Italy, ca. 70 BCE.

Figure 10-12 Brawlin the Pompeiiamphitheater, wallpainting from HouseI,3,23, Pompeii, Italy,ca. 60–79 CE.Approx. 5’ 7” x 6’ 1”.Museo Nazionale,Naples.

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

•The Romans valued luxury and comfort. Aristocratic homesuncovered at Pompeii are lavish and all followed a basic commonplan

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Pompeii today…

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

•Reconstructiondrawing of Pompeii

•They did nothave green lawns,front porches orpicturewindows…

•Instead, they hadhigh stone wallskept out strangers,noises and odors…

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-13 Atrium of the House ofthe Vettii, Pompeii, Italy, secondcentury BCE, rebuilt 62–79 CE.

•A person would enterthrough a dark, narrowfoyer which lead to a largeopen atrium, or court

•These homes were full ofbeautiful wall paintings andfloor mosaics

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-13 Atrium of the House ofthe Vettii, Pompeii, Italy, secondcentury BCE, rebuilt 62–79 CE.

•Light, air and rainwaterentered the atriumthrough an opening inthe roof called thecompluvium

•The water collected inthe impluvium in thefloor

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

•The atrium oftenconnected to a peristylearound an open air garden

•These were private mini-parks filled with bubblingfountains, fruit trees,shrubs and vegetablegardens

•A number of small roomssurrounded the atrium andthe peristyle, the cubicula,where the family slept anddined

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-14 First Style wall painting in thefauces of the Samnite House, Herculaneum,Italy, late second century BCE.

Pompeii: Wall Paintings

•Almost all surviving Roman wallpaintings come from Pompeii andnearby Herculaneum

•They are frescoes in which waterbased pigments are applied directly towet plaster

•The paintings include many subjects:portraits, mythical scenes, landscapes,cityscapes, and still life compositions ofinanimate objects

Figure 10-15 Dionysiac mystery frieze, Second Style wall paintings in Room 5 of the Villaof the Mysteries, Pompeii, Italy, ca. 60–50 BCE. Frieze approx. 5’ 4” high.

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-16 Second Style wall paintings (general view and detail of tholos) fromCubiculum M of the Villa of Publius Fannius Synistor, Boscoreale, Italy, ca. 50–40 BCE.Approx. 8’ 9” high. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-17 Gardenscape, Second Style wall painting, from the Villa of Livia,Primaporta, Italy, ca. 30–20 BCE. Approx. 6’ 7” high. Museo Nazionale Romano-PalazzoMassimo alle Terme, Rome.

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-18 Detail of a Third Style wall painting,from Cubiculum 15 of the Villa of Agrippa Postumus,Boscotrecase, Italy, ca. 10 BCE. Approx. 7’ 8” high.Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

•In the late 19th century, a German arthistorian divided Pompeian painting intofour styles

•More interestingly, Pompeian artists useda “mixture of perspective” model in theirapproach to drawing and painting

•Perspective is a system for representingthree dimensional space

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-19 The old farmer ofCorycus, folio 7 verso of the VaticanVergil, ca. 400–420 CE. Tempera onparchment, approx. 1’ 1/2” X 1’.Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana,Rome.

•Painters from Pompeiicombined three perspectivetechniques to create theillusion of three dimensionalspace, depth, on a flat surface:

•Intuitive perspective

•Atmospheric perspective

•Single-point linear perspective

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-19 The old farmer of Corycus, folio 7verso of the Vatican Vergil, ca. 400–420 CE.Tempera on parchment, approx. 1’ 1/2” X 1’.Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Rome.

•Intuitive perspective: objectsmeant to be seen as far away aredrawn smaller than objectsintended to appear nearby

•Atmospheric perspective:muting colors and slightlyblurring details as objects getfurther away

•Single-point linear perspective:creates depth by using recedinglines that converge at a singlepoint

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-20 Fourth Style wall paintings in Room 78 of the Domus Aurea (GoldenHouse) of Nero, Rome, Italy, 64–68 CE.

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-21 Fourth Style wallpaintings in the Ixion Room(Triclinium P) of the House of theVettii, Pompeii, Italy, ca. 70–79 CE.

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-22 Neptune and Amphitrite, wall mosaic in the summer triclinium of theHouse of Neptune and Amphitrite, Herculaneum, Italy, ca. 62–79 CE.

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Figure 10-23 Portrait of a husband and wife,wall painting from House VII,2,6, Pompeii,Italy, ca. 70–79 CE. Approx. 1’ 11” x 1’ 81/2”. Museo Nazionale, Naples.

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

•Illusionism: creating the“illusion” of three dimensionalspace

Figure 10-24 Still life with peaches, detail of a Fourth Style wall painting, fromHerculaneum, Italy, ca. 62–79 CE. Approx. 1’ 2” x 1’ 1 1/2”. Museo Nazionale, Naples.

•Still life painting would beforgotten in Europe untilthe Dutch artists from the17th and 18th centuriesrediscovered the genre

•Modeling: The art ofsculpting models from clayetc. to create a representationof something; also: therepresentation of depth in atwo-dimensional image

Republican Rome (100 BCE)

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Augustus

Augustus 27-14

Figure 10-25 Portrait of Augustus as general, fromPrimaporta, Italy, copy of a bronze original of ca. 20BCE. Marble, 6’ 8” high. Vatican Museums, Rome.

•Rome began as a collection of huts on ahill beside the Tiber River

•By the middle of the first century BCE,the Roman Empire was even larger thanthat of Alexander’s

•Disgruntled senators assassinated JuliusCeasar on the Ides of March, 44 BCE

•plunged into civil war for 13 years

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Augustus

Figure 10-25 Portrait of Augustus asgeneral, from Primaporta, Italy, copy of abronze original of ca. 20 BCE. Marble, 6’ 8”high. Vatican Museums, Rome.

The Age and Art of Augustus

•Civil war ended when Caesar’sgrandnephew and adopted son, Octavian,defeated Mark Antonly and QueenCleopatra of Egypt at the battle of Actium

•Octavian skillfully consolidates powerwhile claiming to be only “the first citizen”

•In 27 BCE the senate granted Octavian thetitle Augustus, or “supreme ruler”

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-25 Portrait of Augustus as general, from Primaporta, Italy, copyof a bronze original of ca. 20 BCE. Marble, 6’ 8” high. Vatican Museums,Rome.

The Age and Art of Augustus

•He promoted trade, commissioned publicworks, and inaugurated a period of peaceand prosperity known as the Pax Romana,“Roman Peace”

•Augustus understood the power of usingart to create public images that project hispower and authority

•There are 300 surviving portraits ofAugustus, but this one is the most famous

•Who does he remind you of?

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-25 Portrait of Augustus as general,from Primaporta, Italy, copy of a bronze originalof ca. 20 BCE. Marble, 6’ 8” high. VaticanMuseums, Rome.

Figure 5-38 POLYKLEITOS, Doryphoros(Spear Bearer). Roman marble copy fromPompeii, Italy, after a bronze original of ca.450–440 BCE, 6’ 11” high. Museo Nazionale,Naples.

Figure 10-25 Portrait of Augustus as general, fromPrimaporta, Italy, copy of a bronze original of ca. 20BCE. Marble, 6’ 8” high. Vatican Museums, Rome.

The Age and Art of Augustus

•His image is commanding, divinely inspiredand ageless

•His contrapposto pose and idealproportions are clearly based onPolykleitos’s Doryphoros

•But unlike Doryphoros, Augustusconfidently raises his right arm in a gestureof commnd

•He was over 40 when this staute was carved

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•At 6 ft. 8 in. he is larger than life…

•This statue also conveys importantinformation about his divinelineage: see Cupid, Venus’s son, nextto his right leg?

•Because Augustus’s family tracedhis ancestry back to Venus, Cupidproclaims his divine descent

•art is propaganda: this statue sayshe is a divinely inspired leader andthe gods approve

Augustus

Figure 10-27 Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace), Rome, Italy,13–9 BCE. (View from the southwest).

The Age and Art of Augustus

Augustus

Figure 10-27 Ara Pacis Augustae(Altar of Augustan Peace), Rome,Italy, 13–9 BCE. (View from thesouthwest).

•The Ara Pacis also demonstrateshis use of art as imperialpropaganda

•Commissioned by the senate, thealtar celebrates Augustus’s roleas a leader who brought Romethe blessings of peace andprosperity

•It is well known for itsbeautifully carved low reliefsculptures

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Augustus

Figure 10-28 Female personification (Tellus?), panel from the east facadeof the Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome, Italy, 13–9 BCE. Marble, approx. 5’ 3”high.

Augustus

Figure 10-28 Female personification (Tellus?), panel from the east facadeof the Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome, Italy, 13–9 BCE. Marble, approx. 5’ 3”high.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Augustus

•Some call her Tellus, some Pax,some even Venus…

•She personifies the PaxRomana…

•She represents the benefits ofpeace: vegetation, growth,animals, refreshing breezes,babies

•All earth, sky and water createa scene of tranquility

Figure 10-29 Procession of the imperial family, detail of the south friezeof the Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome, Italy, 13–9 BCE. Marble, approx. 5’ 3”high.

Augustus

Figure 10-29 Procession of the imperial family, detail of the south friezeof the Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome, Italy, 13–9 BCE. Marble, approx. 5’ 3”high.

Augustus

•This is a procession of theroyal family

•Clearly inspired by thePanathenaic procession friezeon the Greek Parthenon

•He wanted to be equal toPericles and his Golden Age ofAthens

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-29 Procession of the imperial family, detail of the south friezeof the Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome, Italy, 13–9 BCE. Marble, approx. 5’ 3”high.

Augustus

•This panel is all about thechildren--- they are very child-like, not like miniature grown-ups…

•Children had not ever beforebeen put on state monumentsin Greece or Rome

•Moral exemplar: be a goodfamily man

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-30 Maison Carrée, Nîmes,France, ca. 1–10 CE.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•Augustan Neo-Classicalarchitectural style…

•This in in Gaul, or France, in aregion called Provence, it wasRome’s first province…

•Can you name the Greekelements?

•How about the Etruscanfeatures?

Augustus

Figure 10-30 Alternate ViewTotal from ENE

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Augustus

Figure 10-30 Detailengaged columnsfrom SSE

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Augustus

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Augustus

Figure 10-31 Pont-du-Gard, Nîmes, France, ca. 16 BCE.

•“Will anybody compare the idle pyramids, or those other uselessthough renowned works of the Greeks, with these aquaducts, theseindispensable structures?” ---a Roman engineer

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Augustus

Aqueducts

•The city had 11 aqueducts that usedgravity to bring water to one millionpeople from distant lakes andstreams

•The precious liquid made bathingpossible in the enormous publicbaths constructed by the emperors

•As the empire expanded, engineersbuilt aqueducts for importantprovincial cities

Augustus

•During the reign of Augustus,engineers made the great aqueductbridge at Nimes, known today as thePont du Gard.

•Most of the 30 miles aqueduct wasbuilt below ground or on a low wall

•When it reached the deep gorge cutby the Gard River, this three storybridge was built

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Augustus

•The Pont du Gard is both animpressive engineering feat and avisible symbol of the power andgreatness of Roman culture

•With its three rows of true arches,the structure reaches an imposing150 ft.

•The wedge shaped voussoirs thatmake up the arches weigh up to 6tons each

•The water is on top covered bystone slabs

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Augustus

Augustus

Figure 10-32 Porta Maggiore, Rome, Italy, ca.50 CE.

Claudius

Attic: uppermost story

Rusticated: rough

•Unlike Greek andAugustan styles, herewe see rough stones…

•This is a gate wheretwo aqueducts meet

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Nero

Nero 54-68 CE

Figure 10-33 SEVERUS and CELER,plan (above) and section (below) of theoctagonal hall of the Domus Aurea(Golden House) of Nero, Rome, Italy,64–68 CE.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•In 64 CE a massive firedestroyed much of the city ofRome

•Emperor Nero took advantageof this in constructing a grandhome for himself, the “DomusAurea”

•This move made Nero veryunpopular with the Romanpeople…

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

• Because of the fire, concretebegins to be used even moreextensively

•Most of Nero’s home wasunremarkable (though vast)except for this one room picturedhere

•It had an oculus (Latin for“eye”, basically a circularwindow) and the earliest concretegroin vaults

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Vespasian

Vespasian 69-79 CE

Figure 10-34a Colosseum(Flavian Amphitheater), Rome,Italy, ca. 70–80 CE.

•Nero was forced tocommit suicide

•After a year of civilstrife, Vespasian (whosefamily name wasFlavius) took power

•He had 2 sons, Titusand Domitian…

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-34a Colosseum(Flavian Amphitheater), Rome,Italy, ca. 70–80 CE.

• Vespasian decides tobuild the Colosseum forthe Roman citizens

•It was built exactlywhere Nero had his“private park” as partof his house

•This symbolically gavethe land back to thepeople of Rome

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-34a Colosseum(Flavian Amphitheater), Rome,Italy, ca. 70–80 CE.

• Vespasian did not seethe completion of hisbuilding

•His son, Titus, saw thecompletion anddedicated it to theRoman people in 80 CE

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-34aColosseum (FlavianAmphitheater), Rome,Italy, ca. 70–80 CE.

•In 80 CE more than50,000 excited spectatorspoured into Rome’s newsports arena

•It is the largest buildingof its kind in the ancientworld

•76 entrances allowedfor great efficiency

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•From an architectural perspective, it is a double theatre, it thusresembles 2 Greek theatres put together…

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•But the similarity to Greektheatre is only superficial

•Greek theatres were set intonatural hillsides, where theColosseum is an artificialconcrete mountain

•Greek theatres housed refinedplays, and the Colosseum wasthe venue of bloody gladiatorfights

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-34 DetailCurving, outer wall: three levels of arcade and attic story

•The 159 ft curving outer wallconsists of 3 levels of archesculminating in a fourth levelattic, or top story

•The arches on each level areframed by a distinctive pairof three-quarter engagedcolumns

•They are stacked in ahierarchy of orders…

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•The 1st story uses Tuscan orDoric columns

•The 2nd uses Ionic

•The 3rd uses Corinthian

•These columns did notsupport the walls and werepurely decorative

•This hierarchy profoundlyinfluenced later Renaissancearchitects…

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•Concrete construction facedwith travertine (a form oflimestone)

•Radial, concentric corridors ofannular vaults (barrel or tunnelvaults)

•Velarium (fabric awning used tocover the audience in a Romantheater, amphitheater, or circus)

•Elaborate substructure belowthe arena floor for gladiators, setsand animals

Figure 10-35 Portrait of Vespasian,ca. 75–79 CE. Marble, approx. 1’ 4”high. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek,Copenhagen.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Titus

Titus 79-81

Figure 10-37 Arch ofTitus, Rome, Italy, after 81CE.

•In the 2nd centuryCE, Rome had morethan 30 triumphalarches

•These freestandingmonumentscommemoratednotable imperialstriumphs

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-37 Arch ofTitus, Rome, Italy, after 81CE.

Triumphal Arches

•Victorious emperorsproudly paradedunder a newlyerected arch astrumpets blared,crowds cheered andhapless captivesgroaned…

•The Arch of Tituswas erected byEmperor Domitian(Titus’ youngerbrother)

Figure 10-37 Arch ofTitus, Rome, Italy, after 81CE.

•These monuments not onlycommemorated military victories,but also included other mightyaccomplishments such as buildingbridges or roads…

•Early triumphal arches such as thishave only one arcuated opening,flanked by engaged columns withcomposite capitals

•Composite capitals: an ornatecombination of Ionic volutes andCorinthian acanthus leaves

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-37 Arch ofTitus, Rome, Italy, after 81CE.

•Reliefs depictingVictories (wingedwomen as in Greekart) fill the spandrels

•Spandrels: the areabetween the arch’scurve and theframing columns andentablature

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-37 Arch ofTitus, Rome, Italy, after 81CE.

•A dedicatoryinscription statingthat this arch waserected to honor thegod Titus, son ofVespasian, dominatesthe attic

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•Roman emperorswere declared godsafter they died,unless they ran afoulof the Senate, inwhich case they weredamned and theirpublic monumentsdestroyed (damnatiomemoriae)

•Such was Nero’sfate…

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-37 Arch ofTitus, Rome, Italy, after 81CE.

Triumphal Arches

•This arch isespeciallynoteworthy for thethe two relief panelson the inside walls

•They represent thetriumphal parade ofTitus down theSacred Way after hisreturn from hisconquest of Judaea(70 CE)

Figure 10-38 Spoils of Jerusalem, relief panel from the Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy,after 81 CE. Marble, approx. 7’ 10” high.

•A line of Roman soilders carrying the sacred menorah taken fromthe temple in Jerusalem

Figure 10-39 Triumph of Titus, relief panel from the Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy,after 81 CE. Marble, approx. 7’ 10” high.

•On the opposite side we see Titus on a four-horse chariot,accompanied by statues of divinities representing the imperialvirtures, or values: victory, valor and honor…

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Trajan

Trajan

98-117 CE

Figure 10-42 Column of Trajan, Forum of Trajan, Rome,Italy, dedicated 112 CE.

•About 40 years after Titus conquered Jerusalem,Emperor Trajan (89-117 CE) defeated theDacians (modern day Romania)

•Trajan commemorated his victory bycommissioning a 125 ft tall column

•A statue of the emperor once adorned the top ofof the column, and his cremated remains wereplaced inside a golden urn at the base

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-42 DetailClose detail: Romans Crossing the Danubeand Building a Fort

•Trajan’s Column is more thanan unusual tomb; it is amasterpiece of continuousnarrative storytelling

•A low-relief frieze 625 feet longwinds around the column likean enormous carved scroll

•Trajan appears in one third ofthe 150 episodes

•He conducts sacrafices to thegods, addresses the troops andsupervises the whole campaign

•In 1587 Pope Sixtus V replacedthe staute of Trajan with thestatue of St. Peter seen today

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Figure 10-42 DetailClose detail: Romans Crossing the Danube and Building a Fort

Figure 10-41 Apollodorus of Damascus, model of Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy,dedicated 112 CE. Reconstruction by James E. Packer and John Burge. 1) Temple ofTrajan, 2) Column of Trajan, 3) Libraries, 4) Basilica Ulpia, 5) Forum, 6) Equestrianstatue of Trajan.

Forum of Trajan

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Exedra

Figure 10-41 Apollodorus of Damascus, model of Forum ofTrajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE. Reconstruction byJames E. Packer and John Burge. 1) Temple of Trajan, 2)Column of Trajan, 3) Libraries, 4) Basilica Ulpia, 5) Forum,6) Equestrian statue of Trajan.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Trajan

Forum: open courtyards surrounded by colonnades and an exedraon both sides, with a Roman temple at one end

Exedra: a semicircular portico which served as an outdoor meetingarea

Portico: a porch with a roof structure supported by columns orenclosed by walls

Forum of Trajan

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Exedra

Inside the exedra

100

Figure 10-41 Apollodorus of Damascus, model of Forum ofTrajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE. Reconstruction byJames E. Packer and John Burge. 1) Temple of Trajan, 2)Column of Trajan, 3) Libraries, 4) Basilica Ulpia, 5) Forum,6) Equestrian statue of Trajan.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Trajan

Forums:

•are monuments to their builders (individual emperors oftentrying to out-do their predecessors)

•Are a public meeting place as well as a place to conduct statebusiness

•The Forum of Trajan is a beautiful example of a forum…

101

Figure 10-41 Apollodorus of Damascus, model of Forum ofTrajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE. Reconstruction byJames E. Packer and John Burge. 1) Temple of Trajan, 2)Column of Trajan, 3) Libraries, 4) Basilica Ulpia, 5)Forum, 6) Equestrian statue of Trajan.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Trajan

Basilica: large rectangular two-storied building on a gargantuan scalewith apses at both ends (and a cult statue of the emperor in one) and longcolonnades on the interior surrounding the central space called a nave, litby clerestory windows and flanked by two side areas called aisles

Apse: a domed or vaulted recess or projection on a building

102

Plan of the Basilica of Trajan

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Nave: the central area of an ancient Roman basilica or of a church,demarcated from aisles by piers or columns

Aisles: the portion of a basilica flanking the nave and separated from itby a row of columns or piers

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Forum of Trajan

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Exedra

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Figure 10-41 Apollodorus of Damascus, model of Forum ofTrajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE. Reconstruction byJames E. Packer and John Burge. 1) Temple of Trajan, 2)Column of Trajan, 3) Libraries, 4) Basilica Ulpia, 5)Forum, 6) Equestrian statue of Trajan.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Trajan

Equestrian: depicted or represented on horseback

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Forum of Trajan

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Exedra

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Figure 10-43 APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, aerial view of Markets of Trajan,Rome, Italy, ca. 100–112 CE.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Trajan

Arcade: a succession ofarches, eachcounterthrusting the next,supported by columns orpiers, or a covered walkenclosed by a line of sucharches on one or both sides.

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Figure 10-44 APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, interior of the great hall, Marketsof Trajan, Rome, Italy, ca. 100–112 CE.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Trajan

•Roman marketswere likeshopping malls oftoday…

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Figure 10-45 Arch of Trajan,Benevento, Italy, ca. 114–118CE.

Trajan

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Parts of an Arch

Who knew something as simple as an arch could involve so muchvocabulary…

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Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Hadrian

Hadrian 117-138

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Figure 10-47 Portrait bust of Hadrian asgeneral, from Tel Shalem, Israel, ca. 130–138 CE. Bronze, approx. 2’ 11” high.Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•Hadrian erected thePantheon to serve as a templeto all (pan) the gods (theoi)

•Its revolutionary design andawe-inspiring interior hasmade it one of the mostinfluential buildings inarchitectural history

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Figure 10-48 Aerial view of the Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118–125 CE.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•The Pantheonrevolutionized building bycombining a portico witha domed rotunda

•This basic designinfluenced Renaissanceand Neoclassicalarchitects

•It was also revolutionarybecause it was the largestinterior space in theancient world

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Figure 10-49 Longitudinal and lateral sections of the Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118–125CE.

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Figure 10-50 Interior of the Pantheon,Rome, Italy, 118–125 CE.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•After entering through the giantbronze doors, visitors see:

•A 142 ft high concrete domecovering a 142 ft wide sphericalfloor

•The dome symbolized the vaultof the heavens protecting the orbof the earth

•The oculus has a diameter of 29ft, allowing in light and rain

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Figure 10-50 Interior of the Pantheon,Rome, Italy, 118–125 CE.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•Light plays an important role inthe metaphor for the building asthe circle of light from the oculustraces the movement of the sunalong the bronze coffered dome ofthe interior… Jupiter’s all seeingeye…

•Coffer- an ornamental sunkenpanel in a ceiling or dome

•the coffers also lighten the weightof the dome

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Figure 10-50 Interior of the Pantheon,Rome, Italy, 118–125 CE.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•Constructing the Pantheon’sdome posed an unprecedentedchallenge

•Roman engineers used manyingenious techniques to supportthe dome and lighten itsenormous weight

•In addition to using coffers, theyvaried the thickness: it is 20 feetthick at the drum, but only 5 feetthick at the oculus

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Figure 10-50 Detail Interior detail: Wall decoration with pediments overniches

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

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Figure 10-52 Al-Khazneh(“Treasury”), Petra, Jordan, secondcentury CE.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Petra: (means “rock” inGreek) is a historic andarchaeological city inJordan that has rock cutarchitecture and waterconduits system

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Figure 10-54 Ceiling and wall paintings in Room IV of the Insula of the Painted Vaults,Ostia, Italy, early third century CE.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•Romans lovedinterior design,and even vaultsand domeswere lavishlypainted…

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Figure 10-55 Neptune and creatures of thesea, floor mosaic in the Baths of Neptune,Ostia, Italy, ca. 140 CE.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•Romans used mosaics extensivelyas flooring, especially in thebaths…

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Figure 10-56 Funerary reliefs of a vegetable vendor (left) and a midwife (right), fromOstia, Italy, second half of second century CE. Painted terracotta, approx. 1’ 5” and 11”high, respectively. Museo Ostiense, Ostia.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

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Figure 10-57 Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, pedestal of the Column ofAntoninus Pius, Rome, Italy, ca. 161 CE. Marble, approx. 8’ 1 1/2” high. VaticanMuseums, Rome.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

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Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Marcus Aurelius 161-180

Marcus Aurelius

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Figure 10-59 Equestrian statue of MarcusAurelius, from Rome, Italy, ca. 175 CE.Bronze, approx. 11’ 6” high. Musei Capitolini,Rome.

•This larger than life statueportrays Emperor MarcusAurelius sitting calmly on aSpanish war steed

•The horses foot may have oncehave been raised above anenemy

•His arm extends in a peacefulgesture suggesting clemency forthe defeated adversary

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Figure 10-59 Equestrian statue of MarcusAurelius, from Rome, Italy, ca. 175 CE.Bronze, approx. 11’ 6” high. Musei Capitolini,Rome.

•This sculpture has a long andinfluential history

•During the Italian Renaissanceit inspired sculptors to cast thefirst equestrian statues sinceAntiquity

•In 1537 Michelangelo used thestatue as a centerpiece for hisnew design of the Capitoline Hillin Rome

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Figure 10-60 Portrait of MarcusAurelius, detail of a relief from alost arch, Rome, Italy, ca. 175–180CE. Marble, approx. life-size.Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

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Figure 10-64Painted portrait ofSeptimius Severusand his family, fromEgypt, ca. 200 CE.Tempera on wood,approx. 1’ 2”diameter. StaatlicheMuseen, Berlin.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

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Figure 10-65 Portrait of Caracalla, ca.211–217 CE. Marble, approx. 1’ 2”high. Metropolitan Museum of Art,New York.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Caracalla

Caracalla 211-217

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Figure 10-67 Plan of the central section of the Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy, 212–216CE. 1) Natatio, 2) Frigidarium, 3) Tepidarium, 4) Caldarium, 5) Palaestra. Thebathing, swimming, and exercise areas were surrounded by landscaped gardens, lecturehalls, and other rooms, all enclosed within a great concrete perimeter wall.

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Figure 10-68 Reconstructiondrawing of the central hall(frigidarium) of the Baths ofCaracalla, Rome, Italy, 212–216CE.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Baths: a large complex ofbaths(cold, warm and hot)as well as exercise rooms(palaestras), swimmingpools, lecture halls, andlandscaped gardens builton a massive scale…

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Figure 10-67 Plan of the centralsection of the Baths of Caracalla,Rome, Italy, 212–216 CE. 1)Natatio, 2) Frigidarium, 3)Tepidarium, 4) Caldarium, 5)Palaestra. The bathing, swimming,and exercise areas were surroundedby landscaped gardens, lecture halls,and other rooms, all enclosed withina great concrete perimeter wall.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Frigidarium: where cold plungebaths were taken after the hotbaths

Tepidarium: the warm roomwhere a patron would preparethemselves for the calidarium

Caldarium: Hot air was pipedinto the floors and walls, and hotwater for the hot tubs was pipedfrom a large tank or cauldron inthe furnace room…

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Figure 10-68 Reconstructiondrawing of the central hall(frigidarium) of the Baths ofCaracalla, Rome, Italy, 212–216CE.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

•Built with imperialfunds by emperors tocurry favor with thecitizens of Rome andassert theirimportance…

•Were constructed withbrick and marble facedconcrete covering all thevaults and domes…

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Figure 10-71 Battle of Romans and barbarians (Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus), fromRome, Italy, ca. 250–260 CE. Marble, approx. 5’ high. Museo Nazionale Romano-PalazzoAltemps, Rome.

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

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Figure 10-71 DetailRoman general (perhaps Ostilianus,Emperor Dicius' son, died 252 AD) and hishorse

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

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Diocletian 284-305

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Diocletian

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Figure 10-74 Portraits of the fourtetrarchs, from Constantinople, ca.305 CE. Porphyry, approx. 4’ 3” high.Saint Mark’s, Venice.

Diocletian and the Tetrarchy

•The Pax Romana was thezenith of Roman power,and a long process ofdecline began during the3rd century…

•This century saw a seriesof economic disruption,military defeats andpolitical upheavals

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Figure 10-74 Portraits of the fourtetrarchs, from Constantinople, ca.305 CE. Porphyry, approx. 4’ 3” high.Saint Mark’s, Venice.

Diocletian and the Tetrarchy

•During one chaotic period(235-284 CE) twentyemperors seized theimperial throne and weremurdered…

•Diocletian took power in284 CE, he was a boldmilitary leader

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Figure 10-74 Portraits of the fourtetrarchs, from Constantinople, ca.305 CE. Porphyry, approx. 4’ 3” high.Saint Mark’s, Venice.

Diocletian and the Tetrarchy

•In an attempt to restorepolitical power, Diocletiancreated a tetrarchy, or ruleby four

•This arrangement dividedpower between twoemperors with the titleAugustus and two withCaesars

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Figure 10-74 Portraits of the fourtetrarchs, from Constantinople, ca.305 CE. Porphyry, approx. 4’ 3” high.Saint Mark’s, Venice.

Diocletian and the Tetrarchy

•This statue visually portraysthe decline of Rome’s politicalleadership

•They are small and huddledtogether for strength andsecurity

•They are a stark contrast withthe larger than life, confidentAugustus from before…

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

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Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Constantine

Constantine 312-337

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Figure 10-78 Portrait of Constantine,from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy, ca.315–330 CE. Marble, approx. 8’ 6” high.Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome.

Constantine the Great

•The tetrarchs did not lastlong… within a few yearsConstantine, a brilliant,young military commandertook charge in 312 CE

•Constantine invaded Italy,finding Rome defended by aformidable army…

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

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Figure 10-78 Portrait of Constantine,from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy, ca.315–330 CE. Marble, approx. 8’ 6” high.Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome.

•According to legend, on the eveof the great battle, Constantinesaw a fiery cross in the skyemblazoned with the words, “Bythis sign you shall conquer.”

•The next morning he ordered theChristian monogram--- the Greekletters X (chi) and P (rho),standing for Christos, inscribed onhis army’s shields andstandards…

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Constantine the Great

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Figure 10-76 Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy, 312–315 CE (south side).

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

Constantine the Great

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•Constantine attributed hisoverwhelming victory overMaxentius to the power of theChristian God

•He showed his gratitude by issuingthe Edict of Milan, which ended thepersecution of the Christians in Rome

•Although eventually hailed as thefirst Christian Emperor, he behavedlike a traditional Roman Emperor…

Constantine the Great

Imperial Rome (200 CE)

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Figure 10-76 Arch of Constantine, Rome,Italy, 312–315 CE (south side).

•He promptly erected a hugetriple, triumphal arch tocommemorate his militaryvictories…

•This arch includes sculpturestaken from earlier monumentshonoring Trajan, Hadrian, andMarcus Aurelius

•In some cases, sculptors cut offthe heads of predecessors andreplaced them withConstantine’s image

•This juxtaposition may havebeen intended to visuallyassociate Constantine with thevirtues of the great emperorsduring the Pax Romana

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•He also commissioned acolossal 30 ft. tall statue ofhimself seated at a throne

•Although most of the statuehas been lost, his enormoushead survives

•Its immense size conveys animage of power and authority

•While early leaders showedtheir gravitas with verism, heis eternally unblemished andyoung

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Figure 10-77 Distribution of largess,detail of the north frieze of the Arch ofConstantine, Rome, Italy, 312–315 CE.Marble, approx. 3’ 4” high.

•Constantine’s reign (312-337 CE)marked the end of Rome’s positionas the capital of a great empire

•In 330 CE he founded the “NewRome” on the site of Byzantium,renaming the city Constantinople,or the city of Constantine…

•It became the captial of theByzantine Empire… WhileConstantinople flourished, Romefaltered and fell…

•In 410 CE the Vandalsbreached Rome’s walls

•The Western Roman Empirecollapsed in 476 CE, ashadow of its past…

Imperial Rome (200 CE)